Cultural Primer

This incredible resource appears thanks to the work of Mu’allimah Tala al-Zahra, who prepared all of the information and resources below.

Cultural Primer + A&S Guide:
al-Andalus, 9th-12th Century CE
Highland Hearthglow, A.S LX


A Córdoban Feast in Context: Brief Historical Summary

In medieval Córdoba’s grand halls and courtyards, sumptuous feasts often brought together people of all faiths and traditions. During festivals such as the Kalends of January – a New Year celebration with roots in Roman tradition – guests enjoyed fine cuisine accompanied by lively conversation, music, poetry & diplomacy.

By the 8th century, Iberia was a crossroads of Roman, Visigothic, Hispano-Roman, Jewish & North African influences. At its height, al-Andalus was a global center of power, culture, and learning – with Córdoba as its most celebrated city. The Arab-led Umayyad caliphs ruled the region from the 8th-11th centuries, having conquered it with significant support from Amazigh (Berber) tribes of North Africa. Many of these Amazigh warriors settled permanently in Iberia, becoming farmers, craftsmen, scholars, and members of the ruling elite. Under Umayyad leadership, Córdoba grew into one of Europe’s largest cities, boasting advanced infrastructure, running water, paved streets, and dazzling architecture.

When Umayyad rule collapsed in the early 11th century, the land fragmented into taifa kingdoms, independent city-states, each ruled by an emir. Rival courts competed for prestige through elaborate hospitality, refined fashion, and scholarly pursuits. In the later 11th & 12th centuries, powerful Amazigh dynasties from North Africa – the Almoravids & Almohads – crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to claim al-Andalus. They reinforced Islamic orthodoxy and brought fresh cultural and artistic influences from the Maghreb.

In Córdoba, Arab & Amazigh Muslims, Mozarab-Christians, and Jews lived together in a complex social fabric. Under dhimmi status, Mozarab Christians & Jews paid extra taxes and followed certain restrictions, but they were “protected people” in al-Andalus, serving as traders, diplomats, scribes, and translators. The mingling of cultures fostered a rich exchange of ideas, goods, and traditions. Seasonal celebrations reflected this blending: the Roman-rooted Kalends of January and the Amazigh Yennayer – both midwinter festivals celebrating renewal – likely influenced each other, and were sometimes observed alongside one another, with shared feasting, music, and merriment.

Courtly feasts in Córdoba were spectacles of hospitality and splendor. This is partly thanks to Ziryab, a 9th‑century musician, poet & polymath who transformed culture in al-Andalus by introducing refined dining etiquette, new fashions, and innovations in music that shaped Iberia for centuries. In palace halls and courtyards – rulers, poets, scholars & envoys gathered for day-long celebrations. Tables overflowed with fresh fruits, tender meats, cool sherbets, and all manner of delicacies spiced with cinnamon, saffron & coriander. Guests dressed in flowing silks, fine linens, and brocades turned the occasion into a living display of Andalusian artistry – uniting the many cultures of al-Andalus in the shared enjoyment of life’s finest pleasures.

Notes on Religion, Cultural Sensitivity, and Key Terms

Al‑Andalus was a multi‑faith society where people lived, worked & celebrated together. We aim to appreciate the cultures we’re recreating, not rely on “exotic vibes,” and we must be especially cautious & respectful when recreating the cultures of “minority” populations. While religion will not be part of this event, it may be referenced academically. Here are some terms to help you understand the historical context:

  • al-Andalus (Andalusia) was the Muslim-ruled territory in the Iberian Peninsula from 711–1492 CE.
  • Mozarabs were Christians living under Muslim rule in al-Andalus who adopted aspects of Arabic language and culture while retaining their faith.
  • Imazighen (sing. Amazigh) are the indigenous people of North Africa who predate Arab arrival. “Berber” is the somewhat derogatory name given to this group by Greeks & Romans.
  • Moor & Moorish are vague, often derogatory medieval European terms for people of Amazigh or Arab descent. These terms should be used cautiously due to imprecision & historical stereotyping.
  • al-Maghreb is the western part of the Islamicate world, historically including present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Mauritania.
  • convivencia is a modern historiographical term often used to describe the coexistence of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in al-Andalus, sometimes harmoniously, sometimes uneasily.
  • caliph/caliphate The political and religious leader of the Muslim community and the state he governed. Córdoba became the palatine seat for the Umayyad Caliphate in the 10th century.
  • emīr means “commander” or “prince.” Before the caliphate, Córdoba was ruled as an emirate. After Umayyad rule ended, many of the taifa kingdom leaders also styled themselves as emīrs.

We can respectfully differentiate between everyday cultural traditions and sacred religious language, items, and symbols. Below is a short guide to common Arabic words and phrases you might hear (or want to use) during the feast. These terms could have been used by people of any cultural group in medieval al-Andalus:

Garb Guidance For A Medieval Andalusian Feast

We welcome you to the feast in any appropriate attire, but since fashion was central to Córdoban courtly culture, we are obliged to offer guidance on Andalusian dress. The fashions of Córdoba are briefly described below for the various peoples who lived there during the Caliphal period through the taifa kingdoms, and the dawn of the Almoravid (Amazigh/Berber) conquest. There are links at the bottom of this section with additional guidance and visual representations of the garments described. Click the arrows for more detail on each section.

Elites in al‑Andalus, whether Arab Umayyad or Amazigh (Berber), favored luxurious, flowing garments made from fine silks, brocades, and linens.
  • Men typically wore a white qamīs (long under-tunic) with square underarm gussets as a base layer, over which they donned a jubba (flowing tunic or robe) reaching to the feet. For formal occasions, a durrāʿa (a buttoned tunic of silk or brocade) might be added. Sleeves could be wide and ornamented with tirāz bands (embroidered or woven inscriptions). Belts or sashes of silk often cinched the waist, and cloaks or capes were added in cooler weather.
  • Women often wore an opaque qamīs or a sheer gilīla as a base layer, topped with a jubba or shāya (a close-fitting tunic). For added modesty or warmth, an outer mantle such as a miʿjar, malḥafa, or kisa might be worn.
  • Headwear for women could include a lifāfa (cap or bandana-style base), miqnaʿa (scarf or veil), ʿisāba (decorative fillet), or tāj (ornamental circlet). Veiling was a choice for many women in the 10th–12th centuries, though it became more common under later Almohad influence. Men wore a neatly wrapped ʿimāma (turban) over a qalansuwa (cap) in many formal settings, while Amazigh men often favored a hooded burnus cloak.
  • Colors included deep reds, indigo blues, emerald greens, and gilded tones, often in patterned weaves or accented with embroidery.
  • Footwear was embroidered slippers, qabqab (wooden platform sandals) or qurq (cork‑soled sandals).
  • Jewelry (bracelets, rings & delicate metalwork) was worn by both men and women. Gold was the most common courtly metal, but silver was also worn, especially by people of Amazigh heritage.
Sephardi Jews in Cordoba often adopted the prevailing Andalusi fashions of their Muslim and Christian neighbors. Their clothing reflected both local taste and occasional religious or legal restrictions.
  • Men typically wore a qamīs (white linen or cotton under‑tunic) with square underarm gussets, often extending to the knees. Over it was a jubba (loose tunic or robe). For the elite, a durrāʿa (buttoned tunic in fine wool, silk, or brocade). It was belted with a zunnār or mināq (thick cord belt).
  • Women wore long qamīs and over‑tunics in the same cuts as Muslim women, either the jubba or shāya (close‑fitting tunic with a full skirt). Married women covered their hair, usually with a veil pinned to a lifāfa (cap or headcloth base). The style of draping and layering was generally similar to their Muslim peers, though often with slightly fuller coverage.
  • Head coverings: Women often wore a lifāfa (cap or tied headcloth), over which was the miqnaʿa (veil or scarf) draped to cover the hair fully. Veils could be modestly decorated, but Jewish women rarely adopted the jeweled ʿisāba or taj favored by Muslim elites. Men often followed broader Andalusi fashion, with a qalansuwa (cap) or a wrapped turban for formal occasions.
  • Jewelry & adornment: Women might have earrings, necklaces, bracelets, and simple brooches. Silver was more common than gold. Subtle embroidery at necklines or cuffs, decorative woven belts, and fine fabrics were popular ways to display taste.
  • Colors: Jewish clothing often followed local fashion in color & pattern. Common colors for outer garments were often honey-yellow or blue-black, but richer colors and patterns (reds, blues, and patterned weaves) were also worn.
  • Footwear: Soft leather shoes or slippers for everyday use. Higher‑status individuals might have embroidered slippers or shoes with decorative edging, similar to Muslim styles.
Mozarabs in Cordoba dressed in a blend of Iberian‑Christian tradition and Andalusian fashion.
  • Men wore wool or linen camisa and long tunics, belted at the waist, sometimes with embroidery or woven trim at neck and cuffs. For formal wear, a manto (rectangular or semicircular cloak) was fastened with a brooch at the shoulder or chest.
  • Women layered a white linen or cotton camisa under a túnica or saya, often with a manto for warmth or modesty. Sleeves and hems could feature decorative trim, especially among higher‑status families.
  • Head coverings: Women wore a close‑fitting linen cap or cofia‑style headcloth. Over that, they might wear a toca (rectangular veil) draped to fully cover the hair; often pinned under the chin & falling over the shoulders. Coverage was generally fuller than that of Muslim women, who often went bareheaded in daily life under lenient dynasties. Men’s head coverings could include a coif or simple cap.
  • Jewelry & adornment: Both men and women wore adornments appropriate to status. Women might wear simple necklaces, cross pendants, bracelets, or decorative brooches fastening their cloaks. Higher‑status Mozarabs often wore silver or gold jewelry. Decorative belt fittings, rings, and modest embroidery were also common feast‑day touches.
  • Colors: Everyday wear favored undyed wools and muted earth tones; feast days allowed richer blues, reds, and greens for those who could afford them.
  • Footwear: Leather shoes for daily use; soft slippers or better‑finished shoes for festive occasions.
Resources For More Information on Clothing in al-Andalus

Arts and Sciences in al-Andalus

From the 9th to 12th centuries, al‑Andalus thrived, blending classical Mediterranean influences with styles & scholarship of the Islamic East, and practical knowledge of North Africa.

Poetry & Literature: Al‑Andalus was a flourishing center of Arabic, Hebrew, and Romance‑language poetry. Court poet, Ibn Hazm, wrote celebrated works like The Ring of the Dove on love and friendship. Yehuda Halevi also wrote about love, in addition to his Hebrew devotionals. Wallada bint al‑Mustakfi, a princess of Cordoba, was famous for her sharp wit, romantic verse, and the literary salon she hosted.

Pottery: Al‑Andalus was famed for its lustreware, pottery painted with metallic oxides. fired to an iridescent sheen. Common forms included ataifores (wide dishes), jarras (pitchers), and alcázares (storage jars). Decoration often featured ataurique (stylized vegetal patterns), bands of Arabic calligraphy, and geometric interlace. Glazing in white, green & manganese purple were popular.

Textiles: The textile arts of al‑Andalus featured silk & wool weaving, often with tirāz, which were woven, embroidered, or block-printed bands bearing inscriptions. Looms produced patterned lampas and samite fabrics, dyed with cochineal red, indigo blue, and saffron yellow. Decorative motifs included geometric repeat patterns, palmettes, and interlaced knotwork, mirroring patterns found in architecture & manuscript illumination.

Science & Philosophy: Scholarship in al‑Andalus embraced falsafa (philosophy), ʿilm al‑ṭibb (medical science), ʿilm al‑falak (astronomy), and hisāb (mathematics). Scholars translated works from Greek, Syriac, & Persian into Arabic, producing commentaries and expanding on original research. Astrolabes, quadrants, and celestial globes were crafted to aid navigation and astronomical calculation. Libraries and madrasas (colleges) fostered cross‑disciplinary study, linking natural sciences with logic, jurisprudence, and theology.

Architecture: Architecture blended Umayyad, Amazigh & local Iberian traditions, including horseshoe & polylobed arches, and alternating red‑and‑white voussoirs. Buildings were adorned with carved stucco panels, muqarnas (stalactite vaulting), and zellij (cut‑tile mosaic), and ṣuḥūn (courtyards) & central fountains helped residents escape the heat. Mosques, palaces, and ribats (fortified monasteries) often followed axial layouts, while Mozarab churches integrated Islamic decorative elements into Christian forms.

Music: Music was a refined art in al‑Andalus, closely tied to courtly culture. Instruments like the ʿūd (lute), qanun (zither), and various types of rebab (bowed strings) were played in ensembles. Musical theory blended Eastern modal systems with local innovations, and performance often accompanied muwashshaḥ and zajal poetic forms. Ziryab’s legacy influenced repertoire, etiquette, and the integration of music into elite gatherings.

Metalwork: Metal arts included the production of finely worked inlaid bronze vessels, engraved silver jewelry, and damascened swords. Decorative motifs matched architecture & textiles. Workshops in Toledo and Córdoba were known for their skill in armor and luxury tableware

Gardens & Agricultural Science: Bustān (formal gardens) followed geometric plans with axial water channels, reflecting Persian & Syrian influence, and featured symbolic plantings such as citrus and pomegranate. Agricultural science (ʿilm al‑filāḥa) in al‑Andalus documented crop rotation, irrigation systems like acequias, and grafting techniques, advancing knowledge in botany and horticulture.

Language, Calligraphy & Illumination

Language: Throughout the 9th-12th centuries, al-Andalus was a multilingual society where many languages coexisted in daily life, administration, scholarship, and faith. Classical Arabic dominated as the sacred and official language, while Andalusi Arabic served as the spoken vernacular for Muslims and many Arabized Jews and Christians. Mozarabic Romance, a Latin-derived dialect, persisted among Christians, while Latin itself remained vital in Christian-held lands. In the north, Romance varieties such as early Castilian, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, and Aragonese began to develop literary uses. Hebrew, alongside Judeo-Arabic and later Judeo-Romance were important parts of Jewish religious & literary life.

These languages intersected in intellectual centers like the emerging School of Translators of Toledo, where from the late 11th century onward, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars collaborated to render works from Arabic into Latin and early Castilian, transmitting the scientific and philosophical heritage of the Islamic world to medieval Europe.

Calligraphy: In medieval al-Andalus, calligraphy styles differentiated from those of the East. They emphasized fluidity and ornamentation, balancing legibility with decorative elegance. The most commonly-used hands are listed below.

  • Maghrebi Script: A cursive, rounded script with sweeping curves and exaggerated loops. It was the dominant script for Qur’anic manuscripts and official documents throughout the Maghreb & al-Andalus.
  • Andalusian Kufic: A regional variant of Kufic, characterized by slightly more stylized and decorative angular forms, used mainly in architectural inscriptions and early Qur’anic texts.
  • Saqili (or Andalusi Cursive): A less formal, more flowing cursive style used in everyday writing and correspondence, distinct from the formal Maghrebi.

Illuminations: While figurative imagery was somewhat rare in medieval al-Andalus due to religious sensitivities, manuscripts were sometimes richly decorated with intricate geometric patterns, arabesques, and vegetal motifs rendered in vibrant colors and gold leaf. Artists used mineral-based pigments such as lapis lazuli for blue, cinnabar for red, and malachite for green, sometimes combined with gum arabic or egg tempera as a binder, highlighting the technical sophistication of Andalusian illuminators.

These embellishments beautified texts, but they also indicated the manuscript’s importance and the patron’s prestige. Illuminations often included detailed vegetal motifs and, in medical works, schematic illustrations of surgical instruments or medicinal plants, linking artistic decoration to practical knowledge. Like many other artforms, Andalusian illuminations reflected the regional aesthetic ideal of balance & refinement, as well as practicality.

Reference Maps

To Learn More

Boogert, Maurits H. Notes on Maghribi Script. 2015. PDF file.

Calligraphy Qalam. “Maghribi.” Accessed August 1, 2025.

Dodds, Jerrilynn Denise, ed. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art; distributed by H.N. Abrams, 1992. Accessed August 6, 2025.

Islamic Spain TV. “The Science and Culture of Islamic Spain.” Accessed August 6, 2025.

Khan Academy. “The Great Mosque of Córdoba.” AP Art History: Islamic World (Medieval). Accessed August 5, 2025.

Museum With No Frontiers. “Great Mosque of Córdoba.” Accessed August 5, 2025.

Whiteman, Ian. “Reviving Andalusi Calligraphy.” ianwhiteman.blog, August 17, 2011.

Whiteman, Ian. “Reviving Andalusi Script Part 2.” ianwhiteman.blog, August 30, 2011.

Images

Fig. 1: Vollmer, Nicolas. Colonnes de la Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba. September 7, 2012. Photograph.

Fig. 2: “Los Reales Alcázares de Sevilla.” Literature of al-Andalus, Wikipedia. Accessed August 12, 2025.

Fig. 3: National Museum of Asian Art. Folio from a Qur’an, Sura 5:13–15. 13th century. Ink, color, and gold on parchment. Accessed August 1, 2025.

Fig. 4: Naima El Khatib-Boujibar, “Manuscript from the medical treatise Kitāb al-Taṣrīf liman ajaza an al-talīf fī al-ṭibb by Abū al-Qāsim Khalaf ibn ‘Abbās al-Andalusī al-Zahrāwī,” Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers (2025), Rabat General Library, MSS. G.21, fol.

Fig. 5: Morningstar1814. Califato de Córdoba – 1000. 2017. SVG file.

Fig. 6: Wikipedia contributors. Map of the Taifa Kingdoms in 1031 CE. Wikimedia Commons. Last modified August 8, 2025.

Fig. 7: Omar-Toons. Empire Almoravide. February 19, 2012. Map. Wikimedia Commons.